Face Consciousness and Risk Aversion Do They Affect Consumer

YeqingBao

TheUniversityofAlabamainHuntsville

KevinZhengZhou

TheUniversityofHongKong

ChentingSu

CityUniversityofHongKong

ABSTRACT

Thisarticleexplorestheeffectsoftwoculturaldimensions,faceconsciousnessandriskaversion,onconsumers’decision-makingstyles.DatafromChinaandtheUnitedStatesshowthatconsumersintheUnitedStatesdifferfromtheircounterpartsinChinain

decision-makingstyles.Faceconsciousnessandriskaversionappeartocontributetosuchdivergence.Implicationsforfutureresearcharediscussed.᭧2003WileyPeriodicals,Inc.

Astheconsumermarketbecomesincreasinglyglobalized,researchonconsumerdecision-makingstylesinvariousmarketsisgainingincreas-ingattention.Evidenceshowsthatdecision-makingstylesvaryacrossnations(e.g.,Durvasula,Lysonski,&Andrews,1993;Fan&Xiao,1998).Suchcross-nationalvariationscouldbetheresultofeconomic,social,and/orculturaldifferences.Underculturaldifferenceshowever,therolesoftwofactors,faceconsciousnessandriskaversion,haveremainedrelativelyunexploredinthecontextofconsumerdecisionmakinginthe

Psychology&Marketing,Vol.20(8):733–755(August2003)

PublishedonlineinWileyInterScience(www.interscience.wiley.com)᭧2003WileyPeriodicals,Inc.DOI:10.1002/mar.10094

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globalarena.Thisexploratorystudyattemptstofillthisgapintheliterature.

CONSUMERDECISION-MAKINGSTYLES

Consumerdecision-makingstylesarementalorientationsthatcharac-terizeaconsumer’sapproachtomakingconsumptionchoices(Sproles&Kendall,1986).Basedonareviewoftheconsumerliterature,SprolesandKendallidentifiedeightfundamentalcharacteristicsreflectingcon-sumerdecision-makingstyles,including(a)perfectionisticandhighlyquality-consciousorientation;(b)brand-consciousandprice-equals-qualityorientation;(c)noveltyandfashion-consciousorientation;(d)recreationalandhedonisticorientation;(e)price-consciousandvalue-for-moneyorientation;(f)impulsiveandcarelessorientation;(g)con-fusedbyoverchoiceorientation;and(h)habitualandbrand-loyalori-entation.Theyfurtherdevelopedandtestedaconsumer-stylesinventory(CSI)thatcouldbeusedinmeasuringconsumerdecision-makingstyles.Thisliterallyopenedanewdirectioninconsumerdeci-sion-makingresearch.Itisbelievedthatrecognizingcharacteristicsofdecision-makingstyleswouldaidinconsumereducationondesirableconsumptionbehaviorandfamilycounselingonfinancialmanagement.Later,withtheuseofaconsumersocializationperspective,Shim(1996)foundthatbothsocializationagents(e.g.,family,peers)andsocialstruc-turalfactors(e.g.,gender,ethnicity)havegreatinfluenceonadolescents’decision-makingstyles.

WhendevelopingandtestingtheCSI,SprolesandKendall(1986)usedhighschoolstudentsastheirsample.Withthelimitationofthisspecialconsumergroup,theauthorscalledforresearchtotestthegeneraliz-abilityoftheinstrumentwithdifferentpopulationsandindifferentcon-texts.Towardthisend,severalresearchershavetriedtoassessthecross-culturalgeneralizabilityoftheconsumerdecision-makingstyles.Hafstrom,Chae,andChung(1992)examinedthedecision-makingstylesofyoungKoreanconsumers,findingthattheysharesevenconsumercharacteristicswiththeirAmericancounterparts.Onlythe“novelty-fash-ionconsciousconsumer”styleidentifiedamongtheU.S.consumerswasnotconfirmedintheKoreandata.However,theydidnotexaminethecross-culturalpsychometricpropertiesofthescales.Durvasulaetal.(1993)assessedthegeneralizabilityofthedecision-makingstylesacrossNewZealandandtheUnitedStates.Theyfoundthatamongtheeightcharacteristics,threeshowedequalvalenceacrossthetwocultures,in-cludingtheperfectionisticconsumer,thenovelty-fashionconsciouscon-sumer,andtherecreationalshoppingconsciousconsumer.Noeffortwasdrawntoprofilethetwogroupsofconsumersalongthesethreecharac-teristics.Theysuspectedthatdifferencesinthesampleandretailenvi-ronmentsmightaccountforthevariationinthefindings.

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Recently,FanandXiao(1998)inspectedtheconsumerdecision-mak-ingstylesofyoungChineseconsumersandcomparedthemwiththeKoreanandAmericanconsumers.TheyfoundthatyoungChinesecon-sumerssharefivedecision-makingstyleswiththeirKoreanandAmer-icancounterparts,including:brandconsciousness,timeconsciousness,qualityconsciousness,priceconsciousness,andinformationutilization.However,thedimensionsof“novelty-fashionconsciousness,”“impul-siveness,”and“habitual–brand-loyal,”presentedbyeitherorbothoftheKoreanandtheAmericansamples,werenotdiscoveredamongyoungChineseconsumers.Theauthorssuggestedthatthedissimilarinterpretationofmeasurements,thedifferenteconomicdevelopmentstages,andthedivergentmarketenvironmentarepotentialfactorscon-tributingtothesedifferencesintheconsumerdecision-makingstyles.Further,researchershaveinvestigateddecision-makingstylesinothercountries,includingtheUnitedKingdom,Germany,India,andGreece(Lysonski,Durvasula,&Zotos,1996;Mitchell&Bates,1998;Walsh,Mitchell,&Hennig-Thurau,2001).Again,theyfoundthattheinstrumentdevelopedbySprolesandKendall(1986)cannotbeappliedtodifferentcountrieswithoutsubstantivemodifications,althoughitappliesrelativelybettertodevelopedcountriesthantodevelopingcountries.

Thesestudieshavegreatlyincreasedtheunderstandingofthecon-sumerdecision-makingstylesandthegeneralizabilityoftheirmeasuresindifferentcountries.However,noneofthepreviousstudieshastriedtoidentifyandtotestforcesleadingtothedetecteddifferencesincon-sumerdecision-makingstylesacrossvariouscountries.Thisleavesthecross-nationalvarianceinconsumerdecision-makingstylesuncharted.Researchershaveindicatedthatanycross-nationalvarianceincon-sumerbehaviorcouldresultfromavarietyoffactorssuchaseconomic,legal,social,political,andculturaldifferences(e.g.,Cheng,19;Maheswaran&Shavitt,2000).Althoughdesirable,itisunrealistictoexaminetheinfluenceofallthesefactorsinasinglestudy.Therefore,thisstudyexplorestheimpactofculturalvaluesonconsumers’decision-makingstylesinChinaandtheUnitedStates,becausethesetwocoun-triesrepresenttwodistinctcultures(acollectivistculturevs.anindi-vidualistculture).CULTURALVALUES

Cultureisthesetofvalues,beliefs,rules,andinstitutionsheldbyaspecificgroupofpeople(Hofstede,1991).Itistheacquiredknowledgethatpeopleusetointerpretexperienceandtogeneratesocialbehavior(Joynt&Warner,1996).Indifferentculturalcontexts,childrenareim-printedwithculture-specificvaluesthroughmodeling,reinforcement,andsocialinteractionwithdifferentsocializationagents(e.g.,parents,

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schools).Theseculturalvaluesmayfurthermodifytheirlearningprop-ertiessuchasconsumerdecision-makingstyles.Inotherwords,culturalvaluescouldhavecontributedtothecross-nationaldifferencesincon-sumerdecision-makingstylesasobservedinpreviousstudies,althoughtheymaynotbethesoleforces.

Ithaslongbeenrecognizedthatcultureismultidimensional.Anof-ten-citedtypologyistheonedevelopedbyHofstede(1980).Fromalarge-scalestudyofworkvalues,hederivedthatculturehasatleastfourdimensions,including:individualism–collectivism(preferenceforin-dependentvs.interdependentrelationshipswithothersandone’sownpersonalvs.in-groupsgoals),powerdistance(tendencytoacceptpowerinequalityinorganizations),uncertaintyavoidance(toleranceforam-biguityoruncertaintyaboutthefuture),andmasculinity–femininity(preferenceforachievementandassertivenessvs.modestyandnurtur-ingrelationships).BesidesHofstede,manyotherresearchershavede-velopedvariousdimensionstoclassifyandtodelineateculture.Forex-ample,Singelis,Triandis,Bhawuk,andGelfand(1995)introducedaculturaldimensiontofurtherdifferentiateindividualistic/collectivisticsocietiesthatarehorizontal(valuingequality)fromthosethatarever-tical(emphasizinghierarchy).WangandMowen(1997)proposedasep-arateness–connectednessdimensiontoreflectthedegreetowhichanindividualperceivesothersasanextensionoftheselfortheselfasdistinctfromothers.

Withtheglobalizationofworldeconomy,increasingresearcheffortsarebeingdevotedtoexaminingtheculturalinfluenceonconsumerbe-haviors.However,mostattentionhasbeenfocusedononeculturaldi-mension,individualism–collectivism(Maheswaran&Shavitt,2000).Researchersareurgedtoexploretheimpactofotherless-exploreddi-mensionsonconsumerbehaviors.Itisbelievedthatsuchanexpandedfocuswillbroadentherangeofoutcomesbeyondthosecurrentlyinves-tigatedandthereforeprovidegreaterimplicationsforadvertisingandmarketingprograms.Respondingtosuchadvocacy,thecurrentstudyinvestigatestheinfluenceoftwounderexaminedyetimportantculturaldimensions:faceconsciousnessandriskaversion.

FaceConsciousness.Facereferstoasenseoffavorablesocialself-worththatapersonwantsotherstohaveofhimorherinarelationalandnetworkcontext(Ting-Toomey&Kurogi,1998).Associalbeings,mostofushaveface-relatedexperiencessuchasblushingandfeelingembarrassed,awkward,shameful,orproud.Ononehand,wetrytomaintainortoenhanceourfaces.Ontheotherhand,whenoursocialpoiseisattackedorteased,wetrytodefendorsaveourfaces.Losingface,savingface,andenhancingfacearesomeofthekeyconcernsinface-relatedissuessuchasfacenegotiation(Ting-Toomey,1988).Thus,faceconsciousnessisdefinedaspeople’sdesiretoenhance,to

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maintain,andtoavoidlosingfaceinrelationtosignificantothersinsocialactivities.

Althoughtheconceptoffaceisnotconfinedtoaspecificculture,howpeopleshapethemeaningoffacediffersfromoneculturetoanother.AsindicatedbyTing-Toomey(1988),faceis,fundamentally,asocial-selfconstructionissue.InacollectivisticculturelikeChina,theindividualisnotacompleteentity.Forexample,amaleChinesewouldviewhim-selfasason,abrother,ahusband,afather,buthardlyashimself(Gao,1998).DuetotheinfluenceofConfucianism,thetraditionalChineseselfisviewedasrelationswithothers,andfaceinChinastandsforthesocial-selffaceofabiggroup(Hwang,1987).Accordingly,faceinChinastandsfortheprestigenotonlyofoneself,butalsoofone’sfamily,rel-atives,friends,andevenofcolleagues.Therefore,Chinesepeopletendtohavestrongfaceconsciousness.Thiswouldrelateconsumptiontoastrongsocialconnotationandwouldaffectmanyaspects—fromphysi-ologicalneedstoself-actualizationneeds(Belk,1988).

Incontrast,inanindividualisticcultureliketheUnitedStates,anindividualisanindependententityandpossessesrelativelymorefreewill,emotions,andpersonalities(Markus&Kitayama,1991).Insuchcultures,peopleareencouragedtomakedecisionsindividually(Rey-kowski,1994).Therefore,Americanconsumersarelessface-consciousandmoreconcernedaboutthepersonalself.Relatingtoconsumerbe-havior,WongandAhuvia(1998)proposedthatthegreaterconcernforfaceleadsSoutheastAsianconsumerstoplacemoreemphasisonpub-liclyvisiblepossessionsthanWesternconsumersdo.Further,thehighfaceconsciousnessmakestheformermorelikelytoconsumeluxuryproductsasasymbolicsocialgestureratherthanasanexpressionoftheirinternalselves.

RiskAversion.Definedas“theextenttowhichpeoplefeelthreatenedbyambiguoussituations,andhavecreatedbeliefsandinstitutionsthattrytoavoidthese”(Hofstede&Bond,1984,p.419).Peoplewithhighriskaversionareinclinedtofeelthreatenedbyriskyandambiguoussituations(Hofstede,1991).Pastresearchhasindicatedthatriskaver-sioncouldaffectconsumers’decisionmakinginvariousways.Forin-stance,itisfoundthathighlyrisk-averseconsumerstendtosearchformoreinformationregardingproductqualityduringpurchasingdeci-sions(Shimp&Bearden,1982).

Chinaisatypicalcollectivisticsocietyinwhichpeopleprefertoactasagroup.Tosustainthewithin-groupharmony,peopleareexpectedtoabidebycertainbehavioralcodes.Risk-takingbehaviorisregardedaspossiblychallengingthegroup’sinterestandexistence;thus,itisoftendiscouraged(Tse,1996).Onthecontrary,theUnitedStatesisatypicalindividualisticsocietyinwhichpeopletendtomakedecisionsandtoinitiatebehaviorsindependentofothers(Markus&Kitayama,1991).Uncertaintyexplorationisregardedasone’smeritinlifeand

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thus,itisencouraged(Triandis,1995).Therefore,Americanconsumersarerelativelymorerisktaking.

CULTUREANDCONSUMERDECISION-MAKING

Thefollowingsectionisdevotedtoexaminingtheculturalimpact,es-peciallywhetherthetwoculturaldimensions,faceconsciousnessandriskaversion,impactconsumers’decision-makingstyles.Giventheex-ploratorynatureofthestudy,therelationshipsaredevelopedandpre-sentedasspeculationsratherthanformalresearchhypotheses.

Researchershaveindicatedthenecessitytovalidatethemeasure-mentinvarianceincross-culturalstudies(e.g.,Mullen,1995;Steen-kamp&Baumgartner,1998).Toavoidcomparinginvalidconstructs,thisstudyonlyexploresrelationshipsaboutthoseempiricallyvalidatedcharacteristicsoftheconsumerdecision-makingstyles,including:the“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”characteristic,“noveltyandfashion-conscious”characteristic,“recreationalandhedonistic”charac-teristic,“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”characteristic,and“con-fusedbyoverchoice”characteristic(detailedinformationaboutvalida-tionisdiscussedinthemeasurementsection).

FaceConsciousnessandConsumerDecision-MakingStylesAspreviouslydiscussed,faceisfundamentallyasocial-selfconstructionissue(Ting-Toomey,1988).Itstressespeople’ssocialneedsmorethantheirprivateneeds(Wong&Ahuvia,1998).Consumerswithstrongfaceconsciousnesspossesshighsocialneedsinconsumption.Suchsocialneedsmakeconsumerspaymoreattentiontotheextrinsicattributes(e.g.,brand,prestige)thanintrinsicattributes(e.g.,quality,value)ofaproductduetotheirdesirestoexpresstheirimages,positions,orfeel-ingstowardgroupmembers(Belk,1988).

Aname-brandproductwouldbringfacetotheconsumerbecauseofthebrand’shighsocialrecognition(Tse,1996).Consumptionofahigh-pricedproductmayshowtoothersone’seconomicadvantage,andthusenhancehisorherperceivedsocialposition(Belk,1988).Consequently,consumerswithstrongfaceconsciousnessaremorelikelytopursuebrand-nameandhigh-pricedproductsinordertoenhancefaceortoavoidlosingface.

Noveltyandfashion-consciousconsumersmightgainfacefrombeingtrendy.However,beingtrendymayalsodecreaseone’sfaceifthenewproductappearsfunnyorunacceptabletofriends.Thus,asafewayistosticktoestablishedbrands.Doingsomaynotgainface,butatleastitwillnotloseface.Soitisplausiblethatconsumerswithhighfaceconsciousnessmightbelessnoveltyandfashion-consciousthanarethosewithlowfaceconsciousness.

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Finally,althoughpurchasinghigh-pricedproductsmayenhanceone’sperceivedsocialposition,frequentlyseekinglowerpricesandpurchas-ingatsalepricesmaybeperceivedascheapbyothers.Forpeoplewithhighfaceconsciousness,beingperceivedascheapisaseriousderogationofpersonalintegrity(Gao,1998).Thus,inordertomaintainpublicim-age,theywouldtrytoavoidbuyinglow-pricedbrands,regardlessoftheirobjectiveincomeorsocial-classlevels(Belk,1988).Forexample,faceconsciousnesstendencyisstronginChina.Inordertogainsocialconformity,peoplewoulddeferconsumptionofaproductuntiltheyac-cumulatesufficientmoneytopurchaseahigh-pricednamebrand.Basedonthesearguments,itisspeculatedthatfaceconsciousnesshas(a)apositiveimpactonthe“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”ori-entationcrossculturally,(b)anegativeimpactonthe“noveltyandfash-ion-conscious”orientationcrossculturally,and(c)anegativeimpactonthe“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”orientationcrossculturally.RiskAversionandConsumerDecision-MakingStyles

Riskaversionstronglyaffectsconsumers’decisionmaking(Shimp&Bearden,1982).Thosewithlowriskaversionfeellessthreatenedbyambiguousandnovelsituations.Reflectedinconsumption,theymayevenfeelexcitedbythepurchaseofnewandinnovativeproducts.Incontrast,forconsumerswithhighriskaversion,newproductsareriskybecausetheperformanceoftheseproductsismoreuncertainandun-knownthanthatoftheestablishedproductsandbrands(Steenkamp,Hofstede,&Wedel,1999).Theyoftenrefrainfromtryingnewproductsuntilother’sexperienceshowsthemeritsofdoingso.Thus,itislikelythatriskaversionhasanegativeeffectonconsumers’“noveltyandfash-ion-conscious”orientationcrossculturally.

Consumerswithlowriskaversionmightenjoyshoppingmorebe-causesuchanactivitygivesthemtheopportunitytofindnewproductsandbrands.Onthecontrary,forhighlyrisk-averseconsumers,theirexpectedlossesassociatedwithpurchaseofnewproductsandbrandsareoftenhigherthanthatoflowrisk-averseconsumers(Peter&Ryan,1976).Accordingly,risk-averseconsumerstendtostaywiththewell-establishedbrandssoastoavoidpossiblefinanciallossoftryingun-knownbrands,eventhoughthismeansthattheypaymoreforthenamebrand.Therefore,itisplausiblethatriskaversionhasanegativeimpactonthe“recreationalandhedonistic”orientationcrossculturally.

Perceivedriskhasbeenfoundtoinfluenceconsumers’relianceonpriceasanindicatorofquality(Shapiro,1973).Whenchoosingbrandswithvaryingprices,consumersnormallybalancethedollars-and-centsamountoftheextracostofahigher-pricedproductagainstthepossi-bilityoflosingoutbecauseoftheassumedlowerqualityofthelowerpricedproduct(Shapiro,1968).Consumerswithhighriskaversionper-ceivemoreriskassociatedwithpurchases.Inordertoreducetherisk

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ofchoosingaproductofsignificantlypoorerquality,theseconsumerstendtobuythehigher-pricedbrand.Thisisespeciallytrueinsometransitionalmarkets,whereobjectivequalityinformationislackingandintrinsicproductinformationislesscredible(Zhou,Su,&Bao,2002).Thus,itisspeculatedthatriskaversionpositivelycontributestothe“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”orientation.

Thesurgeofnewbrandsandnewstoresmaypsychologicallyburdenhighrisk-averseconsumersbecausethenewbrandsareattractivetothem,yettheyfeelreluctanttotrytheproducts.Withtheoverflowofproductinformationinthemarket,lowrisk-averseconsumersproac-tivelytrytodistinguishgoodbrandsfrombad,whilehighlyrisk-averseconsumerswaitforother’sopinionorturntoshortcutpurchasingstrat-egiessuchastheuseofprice,brand,andstorecues(e.g.,Derbaix,1983).Highlyrisk-averseconsumersmightalsoincreaseinformationacquisi-tioninordertodecreaseuncertaintyassociatedwithpurchases(e.g.,Moore&Lehmann,1980).However,asindicatedbyGemunden(1985),theinformationacquiredbythemmayactuallyleadtogreaterratherthanreducedperceivedrisk,leavinghighlyrisk-averseconsumerscon-fusedbytheoverflowedinformation.Therefore,itislikelythatriskaversionhasapositiveimpactonthe“confusedbyoverchoice”orien-tationcrossculturally.

ConsumerDecision-MakingStylesintheUnitedStatesandChina

Asindicatedbypastresearch,Chineseconsumerspossessastrongerface-consciousnesstendencyandahigherdegreeofriskaversionthanU.S.consumers.Bothfaceconsciousnessandriskaversionareexpectedtopositivelyaffectconsumers’“brand-consciousandprice-equals-qual-ity”orientation.Thus,itisinferredthatconsumersinChinawouldshowhigher“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”orientationthanthoseintheUnitedStates.

Itisspeculatedthatbothfaceconsciousnessandriskaversionnega-tivelyaffectconsumers’“noveltyandfashion-conscious”orientation.Asaresult,consumersinChinamaypossesslower“noveltyandfashion-conscious”orientationindecision-makingstylesbecausetheypossessrelativelyhigherfaceconsciousnessandgreaterriskaversion.Facecon-sciousnessisalsoconjecturedasnegativelyswayingconsumers’“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”orientation.ConsumersinChina,beinghighlyfaceconscious,thusmaypossessalower“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”characteristicthanthoseintheUnitedStates.

Riskaversionispositedtonegativelycontributetoconsumers’“rec-reationalandhedonistic”orientationinconsumerdecision-makingstyles.ConsumersinChina,beinghighlyriskaverse,mayaccordinglyexhibitlower“recreationalandhedonistic”orientationcomparedtocon-sumersintheUnitedStates.Finally,riskaversionisexpectedtoposi-740

BAO,ZHOU,ANDSU

tivelyinfluenceconsumers’“confusedbyoverchoice”decisionmakingstyle.Consequently,consumersinChina,beinghighlyriskaverse,maydisplayagreater“confusedbyoverchoice”characteristic.

Asasummary,basedonthespeculationsregardingtheimpactoffaceconsciousnessandriskaversiononconsumers’decision-makingstylesandthefactthatChineseconsumerspossesshigherfaceconsciousnessandgreaterriskaversionthantheirAmericancounterparts,itisin-ferredthatcomparedwithAmericanconsumers,Chineseconsumerspossess(a)ahigher“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”orien-tation,(b)ahigher“confusedbyoverchoice”orientation,(c)alower“nov-eltyandfashion-conscious”orientation,(d)alower“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”orientation,and(e)alower“recreationalandhedon-istic”orientation.Thenextsectiondescribesthemethodappliedtoscru-tinizingthesespeculations.

METHODSurveyDesign

Asurveystudywasconstructedtocollectdataregardingyoungconsum-ers’decision-makingstylesinboththeUnitedStatesandChina.In-cludedinthesurveyweretheconsumerdecision-makingstyles,con-sumers’faceconsciousnesstendency,andtherisk-aversionscale.Respondentswerealsoaskedtoprovidetheirdemographicssuchasage,education,andgender.

Apretestwasconductedamong40studentsintheUnitedStatestotestthemeasuresinthisstudy.Someitemsweredeletedaccordingtothepretest.Then,anoriginalsurveywasdesignedinEnglishandwasfurthertranslatedintoChinesebyabilingualgraduatestudentfromChina.ThetranslatedversionwasbacktranslatedtoEnglishbyanotherbilingualstudent.Discrepanciesinthetranslationwerecarefullyin-spectedandcorrectedtoensuretranslationequivalenceofthequestion-naire(Mullen,1995).Samples

Tomakethesamplescomparable(Dawar&Parker,1994),collegestu-dentswereusedinboththeUnitedStatesandChina.Datainbothcountrieswerecollectedduringthesameacademicsemestertoensuretimecomparability.Altogether,226usablequestionnaireswereob-tained—120werecollectedfromauniversityinnorthernChinaand106fromasouthernstateuniversityintheUnitedStates.Thedemo-graphiccharacteristicsofthesampleweresimilaracrossthetwocoun-tries.Forexample,alltheAmericansubjectswereundergraduatestu-dents;72.9%werejuniorsages19to27withameanageof21.1.Allthe

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Chinesesubjectswerealsoundergraduatestudents;48.7%werejuniorsages18to25withameanageof20.4.Measures

Cross-CulturalMeasurementValidation.Decision-makingstylesaredependentvariables,whereasfaceconsciousnessandriskaversionarebothdependentandindependentvariablesinthisstudy.Becausethisstudyinvolvescross-culturalcomparisons,itisnecessarytofirstestablishconfiguralinvariance,metricinvariance,andscalarinvari-anceformeasurementinstruments(Mullen,1995).FollowingtheproceduresproposedbySteenkampandBaumgartner(1998),themea-surementinstrumentforeveryvariablewasexaminedandcross-culturalinvariancewasassessedwiththeuseofAMOS4.0.Inlinewithresearchers’recommendation,modelevaluationwasbasedonfitnessindicessuchastheroot-mean-squareerrorofapproximation(RMSEA),Akaikeinformationcriterion(AIC),thecomparativefitindex(CFI),theTucker-Lewisindex(TLI),aswellasthechi-squaretest,ratherthansolelythechi-squaretest(e.g.,Anderson&Gerbing,1988;Bagozzi&Yi,1988).

ConsumerDecision-MakingStyles.TheConsumerStyleInventory(CSI)wasdevelopedbySprolesandKendall(1986)tomeasureconsum-ers’decision-makingstyles.Further,Shim(1996)usedashortformofconsumerdecision-makingstylesbyselecting32statementsfromtheoriginalCSI,withfourhighest-loadingitemsforeachoftheeightcon-sumerdecision-makingstyles.Shefoundthatthefour-itemsubscalesexhibitslightlygreaterreliabilitythantheoriginalresultsobtainedbySprolesandKendall.Thus,Shim’sfour-itemsubscaleswereadoptedinthisstudy.DetailsofconstructinvarianceassessmentarereportedinTable1.

Itappearsthatfivedimensionsofconsumerdecision-makingstylesarecross-culturallyequivalentandexhibitfavorablecross-culturalro-bustness.Theyarethe“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”char-acteristic,the“noveltyandfashion-conscious”characteristic,the“rec-reationalandhedonistic”characteristic,the“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”characteristic,andthe“confusedbyoverchoice”char-acteristic.Theotherthreedimensionsdidnotsurvivethecross-culturalevaluationbythesedata.Specifically,themeasureofthe“perfection-isticandhigh-quality-conscious”characteristichadonlyoneitemtobescalarinvariant,themeasureofthe“impulsiveandcareless”charac-teristicwasnotconfiguralinvariant,andthemeasureof“habitualandbrand-loyal”characteristicdidnotmeettherequirementofscalarin-variance.Therefore,thesethreedimensionsweredroppedfromfurthercomparisons.

742BAO,ZHOU,ANDSU

FACETable1.Cross-CulturalMeasurementValidation.

CONSCIOUSNESSConsumptionCharacteristic

Perfectionisticandhigh-quality-consciouscharacteristic

ANDRISKAVERSIONBrand-consciousandprice-equals-qualitycharacteristic

Noveltyandfashion-consciouscharacteristic

743Model

EqualityofcovariancesandmeansConfiguralinvarianceFullmetricinvarianceFullscalarinvariance

Initialpartialscalarinvariance(threeitemsinvariant)

Secondpartialscalarinvariance(twoitemsinvariant)

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(oneiteminvariant)EqualityofcovariancesandmeansConfiguralinvarianceFullmetricinvarianceFullscalarinvariance

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(threeitemsinvariant)Equalityofcovariancesandmeans

Initialconfiguralinvariance(fouritems)Finalconfiguralinvariance(threeitems)FullmetricinvarianceFullscalarinvariance

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(twoitemsinvariant)

␹2valuedf66.78107.30411.50769.661157.461046.31918.62833.47106.34412.93735.661126.981048.40101.414006.51241.95530.26

4

pvalue␹2/df.006.68.121.83.121..006.33.005.75.005.15.022.33.003.35.181.59.071.85.003.24.032.70.004.84.840.351.00—.043.26.008.38.00

7.57

RMSEAAIC.16102.78.0655.30.0553.51.15103.66.1593.46.1484.31.0858.62.1069.47.0554.34.0654.92.1069.66.0962.98.1384.40.0049.12—36.00.1038.51.1867.95.17

58.26

CFITLI0.980.960.990.990.990.990.980.960.980.970.990.971.000.990.990.980.990.990.990.990.990.980.990.990.980.961.001.001.00—0.990.980.980.940.98

0.95

744Table1.(Continued)ConsumptionCharacteristic

Recreationalandhedon-isticcharacteristic

Priceconsciousand

value-for-moneychar-acteristic

BAO,ImpulsiveandcarelesscharacteristicZHOU,Confusedbyoverchoicecharacteristic

ANDSUModel

EqualityofcovariancesandmeansConfiguralinvarianceFullmetricinvariance

Finalpartialmetricinvariance(threeitemsinvariant)

Initialpartialscalarinvariance(threeitemsinvariant)

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(twoitemsinvariant)EqualityofcovariancesandmeansConfiguralinvarianceFullmetricinvarianceFullscalarinvariance

Initialpartialscalarinvariance(threeitemsinvariant)

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(threeitemsinvariant)EqualityofcovariancesandmeansEqualityofcovariancesandmeansConfiguralinvarianceFullmetricinvarianceFullscalarinvariance

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(threeitemsinvariant)

␹2valuedf83.80108.08431.4579.96660.49931.86858.39102.3549.10759.311146.971022.91954.301047.82105.0448.93751.511122.91

10

pvalue␹2/df.008.38.092.02.004.49.131.66.006.72.003.98.005.84.670.59.251.30.005.39.004.70.012.55.005.43.004.78.281.26.261.28.004.68.01

2.29

RMSEAAIC.18119.80.0756.08.1373.45.0053.96.1698.49.1271.86.1594.39.0050.35.0451.10.1493.31.1382.97.0860.91.1490.30.1383.82.0353.04.0450.93.1385.51.08

58.91

CFITLI0.970.940.990.990.990.971.000.990.980.950.990.980.980.961.001.001.001.000.980.960.980.970.990.990.980.960.980.961.001.001.001.000.980.960.99

0.99

FACECONSCIOUSNESSANDRISKAVERSION745Habitualandbrand-loyalcharacteristic

Equalityofcovariancesandmeans

Initialconfiguralinvariance(fouritems)Finalconfiguralinvariance(threeitems)FullmetricinvarianceFullscalarinvariance

Initialpartialscalarinvariance(twoitemsinvariant)

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(oneiteminvariant)EqualityofcovariancesandmeansConfiguralinvarianceFullmetricinvarianceFullscalarinvariance

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(threeitemsinvariant)EqualityofcovariancesandmeansConfiguralinvarianceFullmetricinvarianceFullscalarinvariance

Finalpartialscalarinvariance(twoitemsinvariant)

81.156.9907.0861.5333.7514.7777.612.607.2081.1624.5162.9502.2962.8114.03

104025431047111060254

.00.141.00.03.00.00.00.00.63.41.00.01.001.00.32.00.01

8.121.75—3.5412.318.444.927.760.651.037.382.4510.49—1.1512.563.51

.18.06—.11.23.18.13.17.00.01.17.08.21—.03.23.11

117.1554.9936.0039.0887.5361.7544.77113.6160.6049.20115.1660.5186.9536.0034.2988.8142.03

0.971.001.001.000.970.980.990.961.001.000.960.990.971.001.000.970.99

0.940.99—0.980.930.950.980.931.001.000.930.980.93—1.000.920.98

Faceconsciousness

Riskaversion

FaceConsciousness.Themeasureoffaceconsciousnesswasspeciallydesignedforthisstudy.BasedontheframeworkofTse(1996),nineitemscloselyrelatedtofaceandconsumptionweredevelopedinthequestionnairesofpretest.Fiveitemsweredroppedthroughexploratoryfactoranalysisforeitherlowfactorloadingsorcrossloadings.Fouritemswereretainedinthefinalstudytomeasuretheconstructoffaceconsciousness.Subjectswereaskedtoindicateona7-pointscale(1ϭstronglyagree;7ϭstronglydisagree)theiragreementwithstatementssuchas“ItisimportantthatothersliketheproductsandbrandIbuy.”Thescalewasthenreversecoded,sothatthehigherscoremeansgreaterfaceconsciousnessinconsumption.

RiskAversion.Asdiscussedearlier,riskaversionreflectsone’sgeneraltendencytoavoiduncertainty(Hofstede,1980).AlthoughHofstedede-velopedasetofmeasurementsforuncertaintyavoidance,themeasuresaremorerelatedtopeople’sbehaviorinanorganizationalcontext,andthusarenotdirectlyapplicabletotheconsumerdecision-makingcon-text.Inordertoreflectconsumers’generaluncertaintyavoidanceper-tainingtopurchases,themeasurementofriskaversiondevelopedbyRaju(1980)wasadapted.Basedonthepretest,threeitemswereusedinthefinalsurvey.Subjectswereaskedtoindicateona7-pointscale(1ϭstronglyagree;7ϭstronglydisagree)theiragreementwithstate-mentssuchas“IwouldratherstickwithabrandIusuallybuythantrysomethingIamnotverysureof.”Afterreversecoding,thegreaterscoreonthescaleindicatesconsumers’higherdegreeofriskaversioninconsumption.

Themultimodelcomparisontestsshowedthatthesetwoconstructs(i.e.,faceconsciousnessandriskaversion)exhibitedcross-culturalmeasurementinvariance(seeTable1).Further,aspresentedinTable2,allmeasurementsexhibitfairlygoodreliabilityinbothsamples,rang-ingfrom0.60to0..Thesereliabilitiesweredeemedacceptableforanexploratorystudy(Nunnally,1978).Ingeneral,themeasurementreli-abilityinChinesesampleislowerthanthatintheAmericansample.Thismaysuggestthat,althoughbilingualshaveexaminedlanguagetranslation,themeasurementsadaptedfromoneculturemaystillnotcapturevarianceinanothercultureverywell.Thisalsosuggeststhatfurthermeasurementdevelopmentisneededforfutureresearch.AnalysisProcedure

Therearemultipledimensionsinconsumerdecision-makingstyles,andeachdimensionistreatedasadependentvariable(Shim,1996).Giventhatthemeansofmultipledependentvariablesarecomparedacrossdifferentculturalgroups,aMANOVAwasconductedfortheanalysis(Cohen&Cohen,1983).Furthermore,followingRose(1999),multiple-

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Table2.ScalesandTheirReliabilitiesinDifferentCulturalGroups.

ReliabilityaScale

Perfectionisticandhigh-qual-ity-consciousconsumerbStatements

Gettingverygoodqualityisveryimportanttome.Whenitcomestopurchasingproducts,Itrytogettheverybestorperfectchoice.

Ingeneral,Iusuallytrytobuytheverybestover-allqualityproducts.

Imakespecialefforttochoosetheverybestqual-ityproducts.Thewell-knownnationalbrandsarebestforme.Themoreexpensivebrandsareusuallymychoices.

Thehigherthepriceofaproduct,thebetteritsquality.

Nicedepartmentandspecialtystoresoffermethebestproducts.Iusuallyhaveoneormoreoutfitsoftheveryneweststyle.

Ikeepmywardrobeup-to-datewiththechangingfashions.

Fashionable,attractivestylingisveryimportanttome.

Forvariety,Ishopdifferentstoresandchoosedif-ferentbrands.cShoppingisapleasantactivitytome.

Goingshoppingisoneoftheenjoyableactivitiesofmylife.

Itisworthmytimetoshopthestores.Ienjoyshoppingjustforthefunofit.

Ibuyasmuchaspossibleatsaleprices.

Thelower-priceproductsareusuallymychoice.Ilookcarefullytofindthebestvalueforthemoney.

Icomparepricestofindthelower-pricedproducts.IshouldplanmyshoppingmorecarefullythanIdo.

Iamimpulsivewhenpurchasing.

IoftenmakecarelesspurchasesIlaterwishIhadnot.

Idon’tspendmuchtimeshoppingforbestbuys.TherearesomanybrandstochoosefromthatIoftenfeelconfused.

Sometimesit’shardtochoosewhichstorestoshop.

ThemoreIlearnaboutproducts,theharderitseemstochoosethebest.

AlltheinformationIgetondifferentproductsconfusesme.

U.S.—

China—

Brand-consciousandprice-equals-qualityconsumer

.77.68

Noveltyandfashion-con-sciouscon-sumer

.84.82

Recreationalandhedonisticcon-sumer

..84

Price-consciousandvalue-for-moneycon-sumerImpulsiveandcarelessconsu-merb.79.67

——

Confusedbyoverchoiceconsumer

.69.68

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Table2.(Continued)

ReliabilityaScaleHabitualandbrand-loyalconsumerbStatements

IhavefavoritebrandsIbuyoverandover.

OnceIfindaproductorbrandIlike,Istickwithit.

IgotothesamestoreseachtimeIshop.Iamloyaltocertainstoresandbrands.

ItisimportantthatothersliketheproductsandbrandsIbuy.

SometimesIbuyaproductbecausemyfriendsdoso.

Name-brandpurchaseisagoodwaytodistin-guishpeoplefromothers.

Nameproductsandbrandspurchasecanbringmeasenseofprestige.Iamcautiousintryingnew/differentproducts.IwouldratherstickwithabrandIusuallybuythantrysomethingIamnotverysureof.

IneverbuysomethingIdon’tknowaboutattheriskofmakingamistake.

U.S.—

China—

Faceconscious-ness

.77.69

Riskaversion.67.60

Cronbachalphacoefficient.

Measurementinstrumentforthisconstructdoesnotsustaincross-culturalinvariance;thusnoreliabilityisreported.

cItemisdroppedinordertokeepcross-culturalmeasurementinvariance.

abregressionmodelswereruntotesttherelationshipsbetweenconsumerdecision-makingstylesandtheculturalvariables.

RESULTS

PastresearchhassuggestedthatconsumersinChinaaremoreface-consciousthanthoseintheUnitedStates,andsomestudieshaveshownthattheformeraremoreriskaversethanthelatter.Aone-wayMANOVAwasruntocheckwhetherourdatareplicatessuchresults.Differencesbetweenthetwoconsumergroupsaresignificant(Wilks’lambdaϭ0.86,F(2,222)ϭ17.94,pϭ.000).Subsequenttestsofbe-tween-subjecteffectsindicatethatthemeandifferenceinbothfacecon-sciousnessandriskaversionishighlysignificantandisintheexpecteddirections(seeTable3).Theseresultsareconsistentwithsuggestionsandfindingsinthepreviousliterature,signifyingthegoodvalidityofthemeasures.

Itisspeculatedthatthetwoculturaldimensions,faceconsciousnessandriskaversion,haveimpactonconsumers’decision-makingstyles.EmpiricalresultsareexhibitedinTable4.Collinearitytoleranceinall

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Table3.MeanandStandardDeviationofFaceConsciousnessandRiskAversion.Variables

FaceconsciousnessRiskaversion

U.S.(nϭ106)13.93(4.80)12.44(3.30)

China(nϭ120)15.68(4.54)14.76(3.22)

F(1,223)8.0328.

pvalue.005.000

Note:MANOVAWilks’lambdaϭ0.86,F(2,222)ϭ17.94,pϭ.000.

themultipleregressionsisveryhigh,indicatinglittleconcernforcollin-earity.Faceconsciousnessisfoundtopositivelyaffectthe“brand-con-sciousandprice-equals-quality”orientation(consistentwithspecula-tion)andthe“noveltyandfashion-conscious”orientation(oppositetospeculation).Italsonegativelyaffects“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”consumerorientation(consistentwithspeculation).Riskaver-sionisfoundtonegativelyimpactthe“noveltyandfashion-conscious”orientation(consistentwithspeculation)inadditiontothe“recreationalandhedonistic”orientation(consistentwithspeculation).Italsoposi-tivelyimpactsthe“confusedbyoverchoice”consumerorientation(con-sistentwithspeculation).Contrarytospeculationhere,thedatadonotshowanysignificantrelationshipbetweenriskaversionandthe“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”orientation.Basedonthespecula-tionsofrelationshipsbetweenthetwoculturaldimensionsandconsum-ers’decision-makingstyles,itisinferredthatconsumersinChinaexhibitdissimilardecision-makingstylesfromthoseintheUnitedStates.MANOVAresultsindicatethatoverallconsumerdecision-mak-

Table4.MultipleRegressionResults.

StandardizedCoefficients(␤)

Brand-ConsciousPrice-andPrice-NoveltyandRecreationalConsciousEquals-Fashion-andandValue-Confusedby

QualityConsciousHedonisticfor-MoneyOverchoiceCharacteristicCharacteristicCharacteristicCharacteristicCharacteristic

0.48***Ϫ0.090.2423.58***0.99

0.42***Ϫ0.27***0.2322.17***0.99

0.20**Ϫ0.18**0.086.10***0.99

Ϫ0.15*Ϫ0.050.1916.99***0.99

0.28***0.22**0.1815.79***0.99

IndependentVariablesFace

consciousnessRiskaversionR2Fvalue

Collinearitytol-erance

*Significantatthe.001level.**Significantatthe.01level.***Significantatthe.05level.

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Table5.Styles.

MeanandStandardDeviationofConsumerDecision-Making

U.S.(nϭ106)18.56(4.27)13.43(4.47)19.50(5.94)19.(4.21)14.43(4.15)

China(nϭ120)16.13(4.20)10.03(4.20)15.49(5.33)16.74(4.13)16.16(4.24)

ConsumerDecision-MakingStylesBrand-consciousandprice-equals-qualityconsumer

Noveltyandfashion-consciouscon-sumer

Recreationalandhedonisticcon-sumer

Price-consciousandvalue-for-moneyconsumer

Confusedbyoverchoiceconsumer

F(1,223)18.9934.5428.3736.9210.56

pvalue.000.000.000.000.001

Note:MANOVAWilks’lambdaϭ0.66,F(5,219)ϭ22.65,pϭ.000.

ingstylesaredifferentbetweentheU.S.andChinagroups(Wilks’lambdaϭ0.66,F(5,219)ϭ22.65,pϭ.000).Subsequenttestsofbe-tween-subjecteffectsindicatethateachconsumerorientationshowssig-nificantdifferencesacrossthetwocultures(seeTable5).Consistentwiththeinference,youngconsumersinChina,comparedtotheirU.S.counterparts,exhibitahigherdegreeof“confusedbyoverchoice”ori-entation,andalowerdegreeof“noveltyandfashion-conscious”orien-tation,“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”orientation,and“recre-ationalandhedonistic”orientation.However,oppositeexpectationshere,thedatashowthatyoungconsumersinChinaactuallypossessalowerextentof“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”orientationthanthoseintheUnitedStates.

DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSIONSSummaryofFindings

Thefocusofthisstudywastoexploretheeffectsofculturalfactorsonconsumers’decision-makingstylesandcompareconsumers’decision-makingstylesintheUnitedStatesandChina.Mostofthespeculationsaresupportedbydata,suggestingthatfaceconsciousnessandriskaver-sionastwoculturaldimensionshavegreatinfluenceonconsumers’de-cision-makingstyles.Specifically,itisfoundthatfaceconsciousnesspositivelyaffectsconsumers’“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”orientationandnegativelyimpactsthe“price-consciousandvalue-for-money”orientation.Thisreflectsthatinordertoenhanceormaintainface,consumersarereadytopaymoreforbrandsthatfriendsapprove.Thisseemstojustifytherelativelyhigherpricefornamebrands.Inaddition,riskaversionisfoundtonegativelyaffectconsumers’“noveltyandfashion-conscious”orientationand“recreationalandhedonistic”

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orientation,buttopositivelycontributetothe“confusedbyoverchoice”orientation.Lowrisk-averseconsumersappeartoenjoyshoppingaroundandtrackingthefashioninconsumption.Probablybecauseofthis,theyaccumulatebetterconsumptionknowledgeandexperienceandfeelmoreconfidentintheirproductchoicesthanhighlyrisk-averseconsumers.

Notallofthespeculationsareverifiedbydata.Specifically,althoughfaceconsciousnessdoesinfluenceconsumers’“noveltyandfashion-con-scious”orientation,therelationshipispositive,oppositetotheexpec-tation.Itwaspositedthatnoveltyandfashionableconsumptionmightposesomeriskstoconsumers,suchaslosingface.Therefore,highlyface-consciousconsumerstendtoavoid“noveltyandfashion-conscious”con-sumption.Thisappearsnottobethecase.Thepositiverelationshipinthefindingsmightsuggestthatmorefashionableandnovelproductsactuallybringfacetoconsumers,andthusareregardedasameritbyface-consciousconsumers.Theproposedpositiverelationshipbetweenriskaversionandconsumers’“brand-consciousandprice-equals-qual-ity”orientationisnotsupported,either.Datashowthatriskaversionisnotsignificantlycorrelatedwiththisconsumerorientation.Maybesomeconfoundingfactorsnotconsideredinthecurrentstudyareinter-feringwiththerelationship.Onepossiblefactoristhemarketenviron-ment.Inahighlycompetitiveandfairmarket,pricemightbeagoodindicatorofquality.Therefore,usingpricetoinferqualitydoesnotim-posemuchriskonconsumers(Tellis&Gaeth,1990).Butinalesscom-petitiveandrelativelyunfairmarket,pricemaybeapoorindicatorofquality.Inthissense,itisriskytousepricetoinferquality.Risk-averseconsumersmaynotusepricetoinferqualityunlessotherinformationisnotreadilyavailable.ContradictoryInference

ResultsshowthatChineseconsumersaremorefaceconsciousthantheirAmericancounterparts.Further,consistentwiththeexpectation,itisfoundthatfaceconsciousnessispositivelyrelatedtothe“brand-consciousnessandprice-equals-quality”orientation.Therefore,itisnat-uraltoexpectthatChineseconsumerswouldshowhigher“brand-con-sciousnessandprice-equals-quality”orientationthanAmericanconsumers.However,thisinferenceisnotsupportedbythedata,whichactuallyindicatetheopposite:Chineseconsumerspossessalower“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”orientationthanthoseintheUnitedStates.Apossiblereasonforthiscontradictionisthatalthoughfaceconsciousnesscontributestothe“brand-consciousandprice-equals-quality”orientation,itmaynotbethesolecontributortosuchorienta-tion.Otherculturaldimensions(e.g.,individualism–collectivism)aswellasotherinstitutionalfactors(e.g.,socialsystem,marketenviron-ment)mightalsocontributetoconsumers’decision-makingorienta-FACECONSCIOUSNESSANDRISKAVERSION

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tions.Althoughfaceconsciousnesspositivelyimpactscertainorienta-tion,suchpositiveeffectmightbereducedoroverriddenbythedifferencesfromthoseotherfactors.Accordingly,theultimateresultinthedependentvariablemaynotreflectcontributionfromanysinglefactor.Rather,itistheintegraleffectsfromallthesefactors.Hopefully,thisexploratorystudycanstimulatefutureresearchtoidentifymoreunderlyingcontributorsratherthanmerelyexaminingthecross-nationaldifferencesinconsumerdecision-makingstyles.

FaceConsciousnessasaCulturalDimension

Thisstudyappliedfaceconsciousnessasaculturaldimensiontoexploretheculturalimpactonconsumers’decision-makingstyles.Itisfoundthatfaceconsciousnessprovidessignificantpowerinexplainingthedif-ferencesofdecision-makingstylesacrossChinaandtheUnitedStates.Toourknowledge,thisisoneofthefewstudiesadvocatingfaceasaculturaldimension,althoughmoreandmoreresearchersarerecogniz-ingtheimportanceoffaceinpeople’ssociallife,especiallyinAsianso-cieties.Someresearchers(e.g.,Ho,1977;Redding&Ng,1983;Tse,1996)believethatthefaceconceptisakeytoexplainingmuchofpeo-ple’sbehaviorinConfuciancultures.WongandAhuvia(1998)suggestthatthefaceconceptisliterallyahumanuniversal,althoughitismoresalientinsomecultures.Theyproposethat,togetherwithpersonaltaste,familyfaceleadstothedifferencesinluxuryconsumptionbe-tweenEastAsianandWesternsocieties.Itisbelievedthatunderstand-ingthefaceconceptisofcrucialimportanceinpromotingluxuryprod-uctsinEastAsiancountries,whichiscurrentlythebiggestmarketforluxuryandprestigebrandsfromtheWest.

Despiteitsimportance,agoodmeasurementinstrumentforthefaceconceptislackingintheliterature.Forexploratorypurposes,thisstudyhasdevelopedasimplescaletomeasureconsumers’faceconsciousness.Limitedbythesizeandnatureofthesample,thisscalemaynothavegraspedallmeaningsofthefaceconcept.Althoughaunidimensionalscaleforfaceconsciousnesswasderivedinthisstudy,theconstructmaywellbemultidimensional,giventhatitrepresentsconsumers’desiretoenhance,maintain,andavoidlosingfaceinrelationtosignificantothersinsocialactivities.Theconstructmayhavedimensionsregardingfaceenhancement,facemaintenance,andface-lossavoidance.Inthisex-ploratorystudy,attentionwasnotfocusedonscaledevelopment.Futureresearchisurgedtouseabroadersampleandfollowthemorerigorousscale-developmentprocessprescribedbyChurchill(1979)andotherre-searchers(e.g.,DeVellis,1991;Gerbing&Anderson,1988)todevelopabettermeasurementoffaceconsciousness.Suchaneffortwilldefinitelyexpandthesetofculturaldimensionsandwillenhancetheunderstand-ingofconsumerdecisionbehavioracrossculturalcontexts.

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